A novel ABA-induced transcript factor from Millettia pinnata, MpAITR1, enhances salt and drought tolerance through ABA signaling in transgenic Arabidopsis.

Abiotic stress, such as salt and drought stress, seriously limits plant growth and crop yield. Abscisic acid (ABA) is essential in regulating plant responses to abiotic stress via signal perception, transduction, and transcriptional regulation. Pongamia (Millettia pinnata) is a kind of semi-mangrove plant with strong stress tolerance and can grow in fresh and sea water. However, the molecular mechanism of the ABA signaling pathway mediating the environmental tolerance of Pongamia is still scarce so far. AITR (ABA-Induced Transcription Repressor) was a recently identified small conserved family of transcription factor in angiosperms, which played controversial roles in response to abiotic stresses in different species. Here, we identified an ABA-induced gene, MpAITR1, which encoded a nucleus localization transcriptional factor in Pongamia. MpAITR1 was highly induced by ABA and salt treatments in roots and leaves. Heterologous expression of MpAITR1 in Arabidopsis increased sensitivity to ABA, moreover, enhanced tolerance to salt and drought stress. The expression levels of some ABA-responsive and stress-responsive genes were altered in transgenic plants compared to wild-type plants under the ABA, salt, and drought stress, which was consistent with the stress-tolerant phenotype of transgenic plants. These results reveal that MpAITR1 positively modulates ABA signaling pathways and enhances the tolerance to salt and drought stress by regulating downstream target genes. Taken together, MpAITR1 from the semi-mangrove plant Pongamia serves as a potential candidate for stress-tolerant crop breeding.

Whole plant response of Pongamia pinnata to drought stress tolerance revealed by morpho-physiological, biochemical and transcriptome analysis.

BACKGROUND: Pongamia is considered an important biofuel species worldwide. Drought stress in the early growth stages of Pongamia influences negatively on the germination and seedling development. Due to lack of cultivar stability under drought stress conditions, establishment of successful plantation in drought hit areas becomes a major problem. To address this issue, drought stress response of four Pongamia genotypes was studied at morphological, physio-chemical and transcriptome levels. METHODS AND RESULTS: Drought stress was levied by limiting water for 15 days on three months old seedlings of four genotypes. A significant effect of water stress was observed on the traits considered. The genotype NRCP25 exhibited superior morpho-physiological, biochemical drought responses. Also, the genotype had higher root length, photosynthetic pigments, higher antioxidant enzymes and solute accumulation compared to other genotypes. In addition, transcript profiling of selected drought responsive candidate genes such as trehalose phosphate synthase 1 (TPS1), abscisic acid responsive elements-binding protein 2 (ABF2-2), heat shock protein 17 (HSP 17 kDa), tonoplast intrinsic protein 1 (TIP 1-2), zinc finger homeodomain protein 2 (ZFP 2), and xyloglucan endotransglucolase 13 (XET 13) showed only up-regulation in NRCP25. Further, the transcriptome responses are in line with key physio-chemical responses exhibited by NRCP25 for drought tolerance. CONCLUSIONS: As of now, there are no systematic studies on Pongamia drought stress tolerance; therefore this study offers a comprehensive understanding of whole plant drought stress responsiveness of Pongamia. Moreover, the results support important putative trait indices with potential candidate genes for drought tolerance improvement of Pongamia.

A critical review of Pongamia pinnata multiple applications: From land remediation and carbon sequestration to socioeconomic benefits.

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre (Pongamia) is a tree native to Southeast Asia. Recently, interest in Pongamia focused on its potential as a biofuel source as its seeds contain around 40% oil. However, Pongamia has multiple applications beyond biofuel production. It is a legume, can form symbiotic associations with mycorrhizal fungi, has been shown to be tolerant to drought, salinity, and heavy metals in soil, and has potential to mitigate climate change. Additionally, Pongamia oil has medicinal properties, can be used as biopesticide, insect repellent, to produce soap, and as a source of edible grade vegetable oil. The seed cake can be used as a source of bioenergy, food and feed protein, and organic fertiliser, and the flowers are a good source of pollen and nectar. Pongamia can also bring socio-economic benefits as its ability to restore degraded and contaminated land provides opportunities for local communities through novel valorisation pathways. These multiple applications have potential to form part of a circular bioeconomy in line with sustainable development goals. Although research on the multiple applications of Pongamia has grown considerably, knowledge gaps remain and these need to be addressed so that the full potential of Pongamia can be achieved. Further understanding of the mechanisms underlying its resilience to abiotic stresses, phytoremediation potential and biotic interactions should be a priority, and co-ordinated breeding efforts will be key. Here, we critically review the available literature on Pongamia and highlight gaps in knowledge in which future research should focus on to ensure that the full potential of this versatile tree can be achieved. We conclude that Pongamia can potentially form part of a circular bioeconomy and that harnessing the multiple applications of Pongamia in a holistic manner, with collaboration among key stakeholders, is crucial for the successful application of its benefits far beyond biofuel production.

Development of Millettia speciosa champ polysaccharide conjugate stabilized oil-in-water emulsion for oral delivery of ß-carotene: Protection effect and in vitro digestion fate.

In this study, a natural antioxidant emulsifier, Millettia speciosa Champ polysaccharide conjugates (MSC-PC), was used for fabricating oil-in-water emulsion, and the influences of MSC-PC on ß-carotene stability and bioaccessibility were studied. Results suggested that MSC-PC stabilized emulsion exhibited excellent resistance to a wide range of salt levels (0-500 mM of Na+), thermal treatments (50-90 °C) and pH values (3.0-11.0). MSC-PC also exhibited an outstanding inhibition capacity on lipid oxidation. Besides, MSC-PC stabilized emulsion had a better protective effect on ß-carotene than other systems. Interestingly, in spite of similar lipolysis extent, ß-carotene bioaccessibility in MSC-PC fabricated emulsion (14.75 %) was markedly higher than that in commercial Tween 80 fabricated emulsion (10.08 %), likely due to the steric-hindrance effect and antioxidant ability of MSC-PC, building interfacial layers that prevented ß-carotene from degradation. This work supplied a deep insight into elucidating the mechanisms of emulsifying performance and ß-carotene protection effect of MSC-PC fabricated emulsion.

Role of rhizobia in promoting non-enzymatic antioxidants to mitigate nitrogen-deficiency and nickel stresses in Pongamia pinnata.

The contribution of rhizobia in the mitigation of non-enzymatic antioxidants against nitrogen deficiency and heavy metal toxicity for legume plant is not clear. Therefore, it is hypothesized that the inoculation of rhizobia could mitigate nitrogen deficiency and nickel (Ni) stresses in P. pinnata tissues by enhancing the formation of certain non-enzymatic antioxidants. The effect of symbiotic nitrogen-fixing rhizobia on the mitigation of nitrogen-deficiency and Ni stresses in P. pinnata was evaluated by inoculating two different rhizobia, i.e., Rhizobium pisi PZHK2 and Ochrobacterium pseudogrignonense PZHK4, around the rhizosphere of P. pinnata grown in soil containing 40 mg kg-1 Ni2+ and without nitrogen addition. The inoculation with both rhizobial strains promoted the growth of P. pinnata under nickel stress or nitrogen-deficiency condition, increased nitrogen content in all plant tissues and nickel content in shoots and leaves, but reduced nickel accumulation in roots. The four non-enzymatic antioxidants including glutathione (GSH), proanthocyanidin (OPC), ascorbic acid (ASA) and flavonoids (FLA) distributed in roots, shoots and leaves were followed in descending order: GSH > OPC > ASA > FLA. The four non-enzymatic antioxidants showed different levels of change under the nitrogen-deficiency and nickel stresses and in the non-stress control. The inoculation of PZHK2 and PZHK4 significantly (p < 0.05) increased the four non-enzymatic antioxidants in P. pinnata tissues, especially in roots. Some non-enzymatic antioxidants showed correlations with nickel or nitrogen in P. pinnata tissues, and the four non-enzymatic antioxidants also had correlations among each other. Therefore, this research revealed an excellent role of rhizobia in promoting non-enzymatic antioxidants to mitigate nitrogen-deficiency or nickel stress for P. pinnata.

A C2H2-Type Zinc-Finger Protein from Millettia pinnata, MpZFP1, Enhances Salt Tolerance in Transgenic Arabidopsis.

C2H2 zinc finger proteins (ZFPs) play important roles in plant development and response to abiotic stresses, and have been studied extensively. However, there are few studies on ZFPs in mangroves and mangrove associates, which represent a unique plant community with robust stress tolerance. MpZFP1, which is highly induced by salt stress in the mangrove associate Millettia pinnata, was cloned and functionally characterized in this study. MpZFP1 protein contains two zinc finger domains with conserved QALGGH motifs and targets to the nucleus. The heterologous expression of MpZFP1 in Arabidopsis increased the seeds' germination rate, seedling survival rate, and biomass accumulation under salt stress. The transgenic plants also increased the expression of stress-responsive genes, including RD22 and RD29A, and reduced the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS). These results indicate that MpZFP1 is a positive regulator of plant responses to salt stress due to its activation of gene expression and efficient scavenging of ROS.

Quantification and Optimization of Ethanolic Extract Containing the Bioactive Flavonoids from Millettia pulchra Radix.

Millettia pulchra is traditionally used for treating diseases, including joint pain, fever, anemia, and allergies. It is also a potential resource of natural flavonoid derivatives, which represents major constituents of this plant. This study aimed to isolate the major compounds from M. pulchra radix, develop and validate the HPLC-PDA method to determine their contents, and optimize its extraction. Four major flavonoid derivatives (karanjin, lanceolatin B, 2",2"-dimethylpyrano-[5″,6″:7,8]-flavone, and pongamol) were isolated using silica gel column chromatography, crystallization techniques in large amounts with high purities (>95%). A simple, accurate high-performance liquid chromatography-photodiode array (HPLC-PDA) detection method has been developed and validated with significantly statistical impacts according to International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guidelines. The Response Surface Methodology (RSM), Artificial Neural Network (ANN) models were employed to predictive performance and optimization of the extraction process. The optimized conditions for the extraction of major flavonoids were: extraction time (twice), solvent/material ratio (9.5), and ethanol concentration (72.5%). Our research suggests an effective method, which will be helpful for quality control in the pharmaceutical development of this species.

Synergistic anti-oxidative effects of Pongamia pinnata against nickel mediated by Rhizobium pisi and Ochrobacterium pseudogrignonense.

Nickel is widely spread by different anthropogenic activities and shows toxicity for plant growth and development. Whether rhizobia symbiotically fix nitrogen can eliminate or reduce nickel toxic effect on plant or not is still unknown. This study was aimed to investigate the effect of different rhizobia genus inoculation on growth, nitrogen fixing ability, metal accumulation and enzymatic antioxidative balance of Pongamia pinnnaa. Inoculation with Rhizobium pisi and Ochrobacterium pseudogrignonense increased the all the growth parameters both in 0 and 40 mg/kg nickel as comparison with control. Only shoot length increased in presence of nitrogen as compared with no supply of nitrogen. Nitrogen content also increased both in rhizobia inoculation as compared to no nitrogen supply and non-inoculation control, respectively. Nickel uptake was higher in shoots and leaves but lower in roots in case of inoculation as compared to non-inoculation control. Rhizobia inoculation improved the plant antioxidant capacity by increasing the activity of enzymatic scavengers catalase (CAT), superoxide dismutase (SOD), peroxidase (POD) and ascorbate (GR). However, 40 mg/kg of nickel adding showed mostly effect on the activity CAT, SOD, POD in leaves. All the enzymatic activity showed a significant increase in absence of nitrogen supply as compared nitrogen supply. Our results suggested that rhizobia inoculation effectively mediated nickel stress for legume plants by increasing nitrogen supplement and inducing antioxidant capacity.

Isolation and Functional Characterization of a Salt-Responsive Calmodulin-Like Gene MpCML40 from Semi-Mangrove Millettia pinnata.

Salt stress is a major increasing threat to global agriculture. Pongamia (Millettia pinnata), a semi-mangrove, is a good model to study the molecular mechanism of plant adaptation to the saline environment. Calcium signaling pathways play critical roles in the model plants such as Arabidopsis in responding to salt stress, but little is known about their function in Pongamia. Here, we have isolated and characterized a salt-responsive MpCML40, a calmodulin-like (CML) gene from Pongamia. MpCML40 protein has 140 amino acids and is homologous with Arabidopsis AtCML40. MpCML40 contains four EF-hand motifs and a bipartite NLS (Nuclear Localization Signal) and localizes both at the plasma membrane and in the nucleus. MpCML40 was highly induced after salt treatment, especially in Pongamia roots. Heterologous expression of MpCML40 in yeast cells improved their salt tolerance. The 35S::MpCML40 transgenic Arabidopsis highly enhanced seed germination rate and root length under salt and osmotic stresses. The transgenic plants had a higher level of proline and a lower level of MDA (malondialdehyde) under normal and stress conditions, which suggested that heterologous expression of MpCML40 contributed to proline accumulation to improve salt tolerance and protect plants from the ROS (reactive oxygen species) destructive effects. Furthermore, we did not observe any measurable discrepancies in the development and growth between the transgenic plants and wild-type plants under normal growth conditions. Our results suggest that MpCML40 is an important positive regulator in response to salt stress and of potential application in producing salt-tolerant crops.

Rhizobia population was favoured during in situ phytoremediation of vanadium-titanium magnetite mine tailings dam using Pongamia pinnata.

Mine tailings contain toxic metals and can lead to serious pollution of soil environment. Phytoremediation using legumes has been regarded as an eco-friendly way for the rehabilitation of tailings-laden lands but little is known about the changes of microbial structure during the process. In the present study, we monitored the dynamic change of microbiota in the rhizosphere of Pongamia pinnata during a 2-year on-site remediation of vanadium-titanium magnetite tailings. After remediation, overall soil health conditions were significantly improved as increased available N and P contents and enzyme activities were discovered. There was also an increase of microbial carbon and nitrogen contents. The Illumina sequencing technique revealed that the abundance of taxa under Proteobacteria was increased and rhizobia-related OTUs were preferentially enriched. A significant difference was discovered for sample groups before and after remediation. Rhizobium and Nordella were identified as the keystone taxa at genus rank. The functional prediction indicated that nitrogen fixation was enhanced, corresponding well with qPCR results which showed a significant increase of nifH gene copy numbers by the 2nd year. Our findings for the first time elucidated that legume phytoremediation can effectively cause microbial communities to shift in favour of rhizobia in heavy metal contaminated soil.

Bioactivity-guided identification of flavonoids with cholinesterase and ß-amyloid peptide aggregation inhibitory effects from the seeds of Millettia pachycarpa.

Millettia pachycarpa Benth, a widely used anthelminthic drug in folk, is rich in flavonoids with various bioactivities. This study aimed to identify active flavonoids with anti-Alzheimer's disease (AD) effect from its seeds by a bioassay-guided isolation. A novel rotenoid with unusual oxidative ring-opening skeleton (10) and nine known flavonoids (1-9) were obtained, and their structures were elucidated by NMR and HR-ESIMS analysis. Among all isolates, 7 and 8 showed selective butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) inhibitory activities (IC50 = 2.34 and 11.49 µM, respectively), while 3 was classified as a dual-action inhibitor against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and BChE (IC50 AChE = 17.14 µM, IC50 BChE = 5.68 µM). Further kinetic study revealed that 3, 7, and 8 were mixed-type BChE inhibitors, but 3 was a competitive AChE inhibitor. Their strong binding affinities to BChE were confirmed by fluorescence quenching analysis. Additionally, 3 and 8 exhibited potent inhibitory effects against ß-amyloid peptide aggregation. These results revealed M. pachycarpa could be a valuable source for anti-AD leads development, and compounds 3, 7 and 8 were worthy of further study as multifunctional or specific agents for AD treatment.

Temporal transcriptome profiling of developing seeds reveals a concerted gene regulation in relation to oil accumulation in Pongamia (Millettia pinnata).

BACKGROUND: Pongamia (Millettia pinnata syn. Pongamia pinnata), an oilseed legume species, is emerging as potential feedstock for sustainable biodiesel production. Breeding Pongamia for favorable traits in commercial application will rely on a comprehensive understanding of molecular mechanism regulating oil accumulation during its seed development. To date, only limited genomic or transcript sequences are available for Pongamia, while a temporal transcriptome profiling of developing seeds is still lacking in this species. RESULTS: In this work, we conducted a time-series analysis of morphological and physiological characters, oil contents and compositions, as well as global gene expression profiles in developing Pongamia seeds. Firstly, three major developmental phases were characterized based on the combined evidences from embryonic shape, seed weight, seed moisture content, and seed color. Then, the gene expression levels at these three phases were quantified by RNA-Seq analyses with three biological replicates from each phase. Nearly 94% of unigenes were expressed at all three phases, whereas only less than 2% of unigenes were exclusively expressed at one of these phases. A total of 8881 differentially expressed genes (DEGs) were identified between phases. Furthermore, the qRT-PCR analyses for 10 DEGs involved in lipid metabolism demonstrated a good reliability of our RNA-Seq data in temporal gene expression profiling. We observed a dramatic increase in seed oil content from the embryogenesis phase to the early seed-filling phase, followed by a steady and moderate increase towards the maximum at the desiccation phase. We proposed that a highly active expression of most genes related to fatty acid (FA) and triacylglycerol (TAG) biosynthesis at the embryogenesis phase might trigger both the substantial oil accumulation and the membrane lipid synthesis for rapid cell proliferation at this phase, while a concerted reactivation of TAG synthesis-related genes at the desiccation phase might further promote storage lipid synthesis to achieve the maximum content of seed oils. CONCLUSIONS: This study not only built a bridge between gene expression profiles and oil accumulation in developing seeds, but also laid a foundation for future attempts on genetic engineering of Pongamia varieties to acquire higher oil yield or improved oil properties for biofuel applications.

Physiological and molecular insights into the high salinity tolerance of Pongamia pinnata (L.) pierre, a potential biofuel tree species.

Soil salinity is gradually becoming a threat to the global economy by affecting agricultural productivity worldwide. Here, we analyze the salinity tolerance of Pongamia pinnata with an insight into the underlying physiological and molecular responses. Despite a reduction in net photosynthetic rate, P. pinnata efficiently maintained its leaf water potentials even at 500mM NaCl for 15days and displayed no visible stress symptoms. Na+ localization analysis using CoroNa-Green AM revealed effective Na+ sequestration in the roots when compared to leaves. Elemental analysis demonstrated that roots accumulated more of Na+ while K+ content was higher in leaves. At the molecular level, salt stress significantly induced the expression levels of salt overly sensitive1 (SOS1), SOS2, SOS3, high affinity K+ transporter (HKT1), ABA biosynthetic and receptor genes (NCED and PYL4), guaiacol peroxidase (POD) exclusively in roots while tonoplast localized Na+/H+ exchanger (NHX1) was significantly enhanced in leaves. Our results clearly demonstrate that leaves and roots of Pongamia exhibit differential responses under salt stress although roots are more efficient in sequestering the Na+ ions. The present study provides crucial inputs for understanding salt tolerance in a tree species which can be further utilized for developing salt tolerance in higher plants.

A thermogravimetric analysis of the combustion kinetics of karanja (Pongamia pinnata) fruit hulls char.

The combustion characteristics of Karanj fruit hulls char (KFH-char) was investigated with thermogravimetry analysis (TGA). The TGA outlined the char combustion thermographs at a different heating rate and isoconversional methods expressed the combustion kinetics. The Kissinger-Akahira-Sunose (KAS) and Flynn-Wall-Ozawa (FWO) methods authenticated the char average activation energy at 62.13 and 68.53kJ/mol respectively, enough to derive the char to burnout. However, the Coats-Redfern method verified the char combustion via complex multi-step mechanism; the second stage mechanism has 135kJ/mol average activation energy. The TGA thermographs and kinetic parameters revealed the adequacy of the KFH-char as fuel substrate than its precursor, Karanj fruit hulls (KFH).

The value of biodiversity in legume symbiotic nitrogen fixation and nodulation for biofuel and food production.

Much of modern agriculture is based on immense populations of genetically identical or near-identical varieties, called cultivars. However, advancement of knowledge, and thus experimental utility, is found through biodiversity, whether naturally-found or induced by the experimenter. Globally we are confronted by ever-growing food and energy challenges. Here we demonstrate how such biodiversity from the food legume crop soybean (Glycine max L. Merr) and the bioenergy legume tree Pongamia (Millettia) pinnata is a great value. Legume plants are diverse and are represented by over 18,000 species on this planet. Some, such as soybean, pea and medics are used as food and animal feed crops. Others serve as ornamental (e.g., wisteria), timber (e.g., acacia/wattle) or biofuel (e.g., Pongamia pinnata) resources. Most legumes develop root organs (nodules) after microsymbiont induction that serve as their habitat for biological nitrogen fixation. Through this, nitrogen fertiliser demand is reduced by the efficient symbiosis between soil Rhizobium-type bacteria and the appropriate legume partner. Mechanistic research into the genetics, biochemistry and physiology of legumes is thus strategically essential for future global agriculture. Here we demonstrate how molecular plant science analysis of the genetics of an established food crop (soybean) and an emerging biofuel P. pinnata feedstock contributes to their utility by sustainable production aided by symbiotic nitrogen fixation.

Capturing the biofuel wellhead and powerhouse: the chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes of the leguminous feedstock tree Pongamia pinnata.

Pongamia pinnata (syn. Millettia pinnata) is a novel, fast-growing arboreal legume that bears prolific quantities of oil-rich seeds suitable for the production of biodiesel and aviation biofuel. Here, we have used Illumina® 'Second Generation DNA Sequencing (2GS)' and a new short-read de novo assembler, SaSSY, to assemble and annotate the Pongamia chloroplast (152,968 bp; cpDNA) and mitochondrial (425,718 bp; mtDNA) genomes. We also show that SaSSY can be used to accurately assemble 2GS data, by re-assembling the Lotus japonicus cpDNA and in the process assemble its mtDNA (380,861 bp). The Pongamia cpDNA contains 77 unique protein-coding genes and is almost 60% gene-dense. It contains a 50 kb inversion common to other legumes, as well as a novel 6.5 kb inversion that is responsible for the non-disruptive, re-orientation of five protein-coding genes. Additionally, two copies of an inverted repeat firmly place the species outside the subclade of the Fabaceae lacking the inverted repeat. The Pongamia and L. japonicus mtDNA contain just 33 and 31 unique protein-coding genes, respectively, and like other angiosperm mtDNA, have expanded intergenic and multiple repeat regions. Through comparative analysis with Vigna radiata we measured the average synonymous and non-synonymous divergence of all three legume mitochondrial (1.59% and 2.40%, respectively) and chloroplast (8.37% and 8.99%, respectively) protein-coding genes. Finally, we explored the relatedness of Pongamia within the Fabaceae and showed the utility of the organellar genome sequences by mapping transcriptomic data to identify up- and down-regulated stress-responsive gene candidates and confirm in silico predicted RNA editing sites.

Comparative study on growth, yield and carbon content in Pongamia pinnata under water stress and urea supplementation.

The growth, yield, and carbon content of eight-month old seedlings of Pongamia pinnata were compared under water and urea supplementation. One set of plants were subjected to water stress condition (WS), whereas the other supplied with 2 g of urea (WS+U) under WS. Both the experimental set ups were exposed to varying treatment levels which include full irrigation (100%, control) followed by 75% (T1), 50% (T2), 25% (T3) and 12.5% (T4). The growth, leaf area and relative water content were maximum under WS when compared to WS+U (p < 0.001). The maximum biomass was produced in the seedlings under WS in control (1.68 g) followed by T1 (1.38 g), T2 (1.53 g), T3 (0.93 g) and T4 (0.73 g). A significant (p < 0.001) reduction in biomass production was observed in WS+U in control (1.28 g), T1 (0.66 g), T2 (1.13 g) and T3 (0.44 g). T4 of WS+U showed similar biomass (0.73 g) as that of T4 of WS. Under WS, the highest biomass allocation was recorded in shoots followed by leaves and roots. Similar trend was observed in WS+U. However, the percentage of allocation was more in the roots of WS+U (27.2%) when compared to WS (22.24 %). The highest amount of carbon content was observed in control plants treated under WS (9.59 g) followed by control plants of WS+U (7.31 g) (p < 0.001). The results of the preliminary study clearly indicated that P. pinnata seedlings were able to cope-up with water stress conditions without urea application and can perform well in 50% water availability and is best suited for the plantation programs in the semi-arid ecosystems.

Transcriptome characterization and sequencing-based identification of salt-responsive genes in Millettia pinnata, a semi-mangrove plant.

Semi-mangroves form a group of transitional species between glycophytes and halophytes, and hold unique potential for learning molecular mechanisms underlying plant salt tolerance. Millettia pinnata is a semi-mangrove plant that can survive a wide range of saline conditions in the absence of specialized morphological and physiological traits. By employing the Illumina sequencing platform, we generated ~192 million short reads from four cDNA libraries of M. pinnata and processed them into 108,598 unisequences with a high depth of coverage. The mean length and total length of these unisequences were 606 bp and 65.8 Mb, respectively. A total of 54,596 (50.3%) unisequences were assigned Nr annotations. Functional classification revealed the involvement of unisequences in various biological processes related to metabolism and environmental adaptation. We identified 23,815 candidate salt-responsive genes with significantly differential expression under seawater and freshwater treatments. Based on the reverse transcription-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) and real-time PCR analyses, we verified the changes in expression levels for a number of candidate genes. The functional enrichment analyses for the candidate genes showed tissue-specific patterns of transcriptome remodelling upon salt stress in the roots and the leaves. The transcriptome of M. pinnata will provide valuable gene resources for future application in crop improvement. In addition, this study sets a good example for large-scale identification of salt-responsive genes in non-model organisms using the sequencing-based approach.

Tree legumes as feedstock for sustainable biofuel production: Opportunities and challenges.

Concerns about future fossil fuel supplies and the environmental effects of their consumption have prompted the search for alternative sources of liquid fuels, specifically biofuels. However, it is important that the sources of such biofuel have minimal impact on global food supplies, land use, and commodity prices. Many legume trees can be grown on so-called marginal land with beneficial effects to the environment through their symbiotic interaction with "Rhizobia" and the associated process of root nodule development and biological nitrogen fixation. Once established legume trees can live for many years and some produce an annual yield of oil-rich seeds. For example, the tropical and sub-tropical legume tree Pongamia pinnata produces large seeds (∼1.5-2g) that contain about 40% oil, the quality and composition of which is regarded as highly desirable for sustainable biofuel production. Here we consider the benefits of legume trees as future energy crops, particularly in relation to their impact on nitrogen inputs and the net energy balance for biofuel production, and also ways in which these as yet fully domesticated species may be further improved for optimal use as biofuel feedstock.

Pongamia pinnata seed cake: a promising and inexpensive substrate for production of protease and lipase from Bacillus pumilus SG2 on solid-state fermentation.

The production of a protease and a lipase from Bacillus pumilus SG2 on solid-state fermentation using Pongamia pinnata seed cake as substrate was studied. The seed cake was proved to be a promising substrate for the bacterial growth and the enzyme production. The initial pH, incubation time and moisture content were optimized to achieve maximal enzyme production. Maximum protease production was observed at 72 h and that of the lipase at 96 h of incubation. The production of protease (9840 U/g DM) and lipase (1974 U/g DM) were maximum at pH 7.0 and at 60% moisture content. Triton X-100 (1%) was proved to be an effective extractant for the enzymes and their optimal activity was observed at alkaline pH and at 60 C. The molecular mass of the protease and lipase was 24 and 40 kDa, respectively. Both the enzymes were found to be stable detergent additives. The study demonstrated that inexpensive and easily available Pongamia seed cake could be used for production of industrially important enzymes, such as protease and lipase.